Should stimulants be administered to manage difficulties with attention, hyperactivity and impulsivity following paediatric acquired brain injury? n

July 28, 2007

September 17, 2012

David W Harvey, Matthew Morrall, Elizabeth Neilly, Deborah Murdoch-Eaton, Department of Paediatric Neuropsychology, Paediatric Psychology Services, (Leeds General Infirmary, Great George Street, Leeds, UK)

For [children with an acquired brain injury] does [the administration of stimulant medication] help address [inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity]?

An 11-year-old boy is struck by a car and sustains an acquired brain injury (ABI). He is admitted with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 6/15. Cranial imaging reveals evidence of diffuse injury. Approximately 12 months later following discharge, the patient is seen for a planned review. The patient and his family report poor attention with hyperactive and impulsive behaviours. The school has reported to parents that there has been a change in his ability to concentrate at school and he is being disruptive in class. This represents a clear departure from the patient's preinjury behaviour. Parental and school management of this concerning conduct is structured and consistent. You have heard that stimulant medication may be of benefit in managing difficulties with attention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) type behaviours) following an ABI.

Using a combination of subject headings and keyword terms, an advanced search was conducted of AMED (1985–present), BIOSIS Previews (1969–present), CAB Abstracts (1910–present), EMBASE (1947–present), Medline (1950–present), PsycINFO (1806–present), CINAHL (1981–present), Google Scholar, Global Health (1973–present) and Conference Papers Index for conference proceedings (1982–present).<br><br>The Cochrane Library (including Cochrane Reviews, Database of Abstracts of Review of Effects and Clinical Trials) was searched.

Search terms (designed for Medline and tailored accordingly for other sources) were: (exp Brain Injuries/OR Brain Neoplasms/ OR brain adj2 injur* OR head adj2 injur* OR brain adj2 tumo?r* OR neurooncolog* OR neuro-oncolog* OR brain adj2 cancer* OR brain adj2 neoplasm* OR brain adj2 carcinoma* OR head adj2 trauma* OR brain adj2 trauma* OR cerebrovascular adj2 trauma*) AND (exp “Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders”/ OR exp Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity/ OR exp Attention/ OR exp Hyperkinesis/ OR exp Impulse Control Disorders/ OR exp Impulsive Behavior/ OR attenti* OR hyperactiv* OR impulsiv* OR ADHD* OR AD* OR HD* OR hyperkine* OR ADD* OR learn* OR cogniti* OR neuropsychol* OR neuro-psychol* OR educat* OR attain* OR achiev* OR intell*) AND (exp Central Nervous System Stimulants/ OR stimulant* OR methylphenidate OR MPH OR atomoxetine OR dexamfetamine OR modafinil OR concerta OR ritalin OR biphentin OR attenta OR methylin OR metadate OR equasym OR rubifen OR motiron OR stimdate OR daytrana OR strattera OR dexedrine OR medikinet OR provigil OR amphetamine OR pemoline).

Dissertations, non-English language papers and pharmaceutical company registers were excluded.

Of 4192 papers retrieved, 16 were relevant to the question see the table.

The largest groups comprising paediatric ABI are traumatic brain injury (TBI) and brain tumours. During 2009–2010, TBI accounted for over 34 000 admissions to UK hospitals for patients under the age of 15 years, with malignant neoplasms of the eye, brain and central nervous system accounting for over 6500 (HES).These children are at an increased risk of deficits in attention, working memory and processing speed which may lead to the secondary consequences of IQ loss, academic failure and vocational and social problems (Mulhern, Babikian). There is well established evidence for hyperactivity, memory impairment and inattention leading to diminished adaptive functioning and social judgement (Williams). Stimulants, in particular methylphenidate (MPH), have been used to treat deficits in attention and ADHD with demonstrated successes (MTA Cooperative Group, Epstein). While the published literature repeatedly indicates the need to consider pharmacological approaches to manage difficulties with attention and hyperactivity following paediatric ABI,(Mulhern, Williams) this remains at odds with routine clinical practice. While ADHD type behaviours and their consequences may typically be regarded as more synonymous with TBI, it is important to note that these concerns are reported within the wider ABI population of children with brain tumours or acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL).<br><br>The advanced systematic review retrieved 16 studies examining the effectiveness of stimulants following paediatric ABI. All studies were conducted in the USA. The first published use of MPH for paediatric ABI occurred in 1986 (Kelly)All papers described in the table use a placebo controlled, double blind, crossover trial with variants of randomised assignment. Forms of assignment are described variably or not at all and use of a washout period is inconsistent. Eight studies (DeLong, Torres, Thompson, Mulhern, Conklin 2007, 2009, 2010, 2010).examined MPH use with mixed paediatric brain tumour patients and ALL samples. Eight retrieved papers (Williams, Kelly, Gualtieri, Plenger, Clark, Mahalick, Hornstein, Hornyak)evaluated MPH use after TBI. Five of these (Williams, Plenger, Clark, Mahalick, Hornstein) met level 2b evidence criteria (CEBM).No studies solely examined use of MPH with brain tumours as participants with ALL were always included. In these studies (DeLong, Torres, Thompson, Mulhern, Conklin 2007) the neurooncology samples were heterogeneous with no clear delineation between tumour types and oncological interventions. These studies used a variety of doses, in very heterogeneous groups. There may be an influence of the type of treatment received, for example radiotherapy when very young and the type of brain tumour upon the outcome, and this is not fully explored here. Non-level 2b studies (Kelly, DeLong, Hornstein, Hornyak) met level 5 criteria (CEBM) and used an ABAB single case study design (Kelly ) case review (DeLong) or retrospective chart reviews (Hornstein, Reddick). For all studies, the maximum reported MPH dosage ranged from 0.3 mg/kg twice daily to 36 mg daily, with a MPH treatment duration range from 1 day to only one paper (DeLong)demonstrating long term use at 6 years. One paper (Conklin 2009) purposefully assessed for the presence of adverse side effects and demonstrated that MPH was well tolerated with subgroup characteristics (female, lower IQ) being identified as predictive for an increased risk of adverse side effects.<br><br>The retrieved papers chart progressive changes to the methodology used to investigate the effectiveness of MPH for paediatric ABI with a trend of strengthened study design and increased dosage and treatment duration (Conklin 2010) Different multiple measures, both direct and proxy, are utilised and selected screening tools also serve as outcome measures. Screening tools may be insufficiently sensitive to determine the presence of change and consensus for what constitutes outcome is absent. The majority of studies evaluate the presence of change using neurocognitive assay. No retrieved study provides a clearly stated developmental neurocognitive model to guide clinical reasoning and intervention decisions regarding impairments in encoding, attention, memory, learning and behaviour. A neurocognitive model may guide the selection of within-clinic measures and help determine agreement for outcome. It is recommended that a model is posited and this has been accomplished for paediatric ABI, for example (Reddick)<br><br>The principal limitations of the retrieved evidence base for the use of stimulants following paediatric ABI include the lack of long-term studies with appropriate power, study design and explicitly described randomisation procedures, and variable neuropsychological capture of attention. To enhance clinical assessment and to obtain improved outcomes for this group, it is recommended that high quality, well-designed level 1b randomised controlled trial (RCTs) with condition or injury mechanism specific paediatric samples are conducted to address study limitations and develop a diagnosis and treatment delineated evidence base. To assist clinical endeavour in paediatric neurooncology, it will also be vital for studies to reduce heterogeneity by using samples that consist solely of children with brain tumours further stratified into tumour type and treatments received. In further studies, attention should be paid to the elucidation of preinjury status, presence of hydrocephalus, developmental profile, severity of injury and time elapsed since injury to control for potential confounders.<br><br>All retrieved studies evaluate the effectiveness of immediate-release MPH formulation only. Modified-release MPH formulations are available as well as the alternative stimulant of dexamphetamine which is licensed for use as an adjunct in the management of refractory presentations (NICE) In addition, atomoxetine, a non-stimulant selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor is available to address ADHD presentations. Placebo controlled trials comparing the effectiveness of different preparations and medications for ADHD have been conducted with evidence for effectiveness demonstrated (NICE)There is a very considerable research opportunity to conduct similar trials for children with ABI who demonstrate an ADHD pattern of behaviour. The long-term effects of MPH will need to be monitored and investigated. If findings confirm the trend in the current evidence base of the short-term efficacy of MPH following paediatric ABI, there may be very significant implications for routine use of within-clinic screening measures for assessment, method of monitoring clinical effectiveness (Kazdin, Parry) prescribing practices in paediatric oncology and neurorehabilitation, and education and social functioning. In order to determine whether stimulants should be used after ABI, clinical practice must ensure routine scrutiny of cognition, particularly attention and scholastic outcomes.

Stimulants have been used in children with impaired attention and hyperactivity following acquired brain injury (ABI) with positive results. (Grade B)<br><br>Teams treating paediatric ABI need to assess for the presence of inattention and consider the use of stimulants with individualised n-of-1 monitored trials. (Grade B)

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